AUTHOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 12

Authored by Nita Seibel, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, George Washington University School of Medicine, Fellowship Training Program Director, Department of Hematology/Oncology, Children's National Medical Center of Washington, DC

Nita Seibel, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society of Clinical Oncology, American Society of Hematology, and American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology

Edited by Kathleen Sakamoto, MD, Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology and Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mattel Children's Hospital, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles; Mary L Windle, PharmD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine.com, Inc; Timothy P Cripe, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, University of Cincinnati; Director, Translational Research Trials Office, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Samuel Gross, MD, Professor Emeritus, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, UNC, Adjunct Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University; and Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA, Executive Director, Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders, Children's National Medical Center

Author's Email:	Nita Seibel, MD
Editor's Email:	Kathleen Sakamoto, MD

eMedicine Journal, May 23 2006, VOLUME 7, Number 5

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 12

Background: Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK), an uncommon renal neoplasm of childhood, represents one of the most common tumors with “unfavorable histology” listed in the National Wilms Tumor Study Group (NWTSG) clinical protocols. In 1970, Kidd initially recognized CCSK as a distinct clinicopathologic entity, noting its propensity to metastasize to bone. The distinctive histopathologic features of CCSK were reported simultaneously in 1978 by Morgan and Kidd, Marsden et al, and Beckwith and Palmer. These reports confirmed the propensity of the tumor to metastasize to bone, poor clinical outcome, and the sarcomatous nonepithelial nature of the tumor.

Pathophysiology: Unlike Wilms tumor, CCSK has not been associated with intralobar nephrogenic rests, and, in a series of 351 cases from the NWTSG that was reviewed by Argani et al, only one case of CCSK was associated with a perilobar nephrogenic rest. Gene expression profiles of CCSKs suggest the cell of origin to be a renal mesenchymal cell with neural markers. Only one case of CCSK has been associated with renal dysplasia, and no familial cases or syndromes have been identified in association with CCSK. Using the fifth National Wilms Tumor Study (NWTS-5) criteria for tumor staging, 25% of patients had localized stage I tumors, most patients presented with stage II (37%) or stage III (34%) disease, and only 4% of patients presented with distant metastases (see Wilms Tumor for staging information).

No true bilateral primary tumors have been identified. One patient with widespread disseminated disease was noted to have a 1-cm tumor in the contralateral kidney, which was believed to be a metastasis. The most common site of metastasis at the time of presentation in patients with CCSK is the ipsilateral renal hilar lymph nodes. Skip metastases to periaortic lymph nodes have been reported in patients with CCSK in the presence of hilar lymph nodes that were histologically confirmed with negative results.

Only 4% of patients present with distant metastases. Bone is the most common site of metastases (15%), followed closely by lung, abdomen, retroperitoneum, brain, and liver. Unusual soft tissue sites (scalp, epidural, nasopharynx, neck, paraspinal, ovary, abdominal wall, axilla) and other sites (orbit) have been reported. Approximately 20% of documented CCSK metastases occurred at least 3 years after diagnosis; some occurred as long as 10 years later.

Frequency:

• In the US: Approximately 20 new cases of CCSK are diagnosed each year in the United States. CCSK is extremely rare in infants younger than 6 months and in young adults. Most patients are aged 1-4 years. A male predominance exists. Fifty percent of cases are diagnosed in children aged 2-3 years.

Mortality/Morbidity: The 4-year survival rate was 75% in a group of 50 patients treated during the third National Wilms Tumor Study (NWTS-3). The 6-year survival rate for patients with stage I disease was 97.6%, stage II disease was 75%, stage III disease was 77.4%, and stage IV disease was 50%.

Race: Whites and African Americans are affected in equal numbers.

Sex: A male predominance has been noted, with a male-to-female ratio of 2.04:1.

Age: Age of presentation ranges from 2 months to 14 years, with a mean age of 36 months. The highest incidence of CCSK is in children aged 2-3 years, in which 50% of the cases are diagnosed. A sharp decline in incidence occurs in children older than 3 years. CCSK is extremely rare in infants younger than 6 months and in young adults, although it has been reported. The oldest reported patient was aged 57 years.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 12

History: Manifestations in patients with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) are similar to those in patients with Wilms tumor. Patients present with an abdominal mass, which usually is identified by a caregiver or family relative who has not seen the child for a while.
Often, abdominal swelling or the presence of an abdominal mass is noticed by a parent while bathing or dressing the child. Abdominal pain, gross hematuria, fever, and hypertension are other frequent findings.

Physical:

• Physical findings include a large palpable unilateral abdominal mass.



• Patients may have accompanying findings, such as hypertension and/or hematuria (gross or microscopic), depending on the size of the tumor.



• Extrarenal tumors with histologic features identical to those of CCSK have been reported.

Causes: The histogenesis of CCSK is unknown and appears to be unrelated to Wilms tumor. No specific chromosomal translocation has been associated with CCSK; a finding that generally indicates a normal karyotype.

Two reports identify a balanced translocation, t(10;17)(q22;p13), in patients with CCSK. Cells that have been suggested as the origin for CCSK are renomedullary interstitial cells, nonorgan specific mesenchymal cells, blastemal cap cells, primitive mesenchymal cells, and the cells that form the lower limbs of S-bodies. Cutcliffe et al have suggested that the cell of origin is within a renal mesenchymal cell that possesses neural markers.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 12

Neuroblastoma
[Rhabdoid Tumor of the Kidney]

Rhabdomyosarcoma
Wilms Tumor

Other Problems to be Considered:

Renal cell carcinoma
Neuroepithelial tumors (eg, neuroblastoma, primary peripheral neuroectodermal tumor [PNET] of the kidneys)
Angiomyolipoma juxtaglomerular tumor
Rare primary tumors of the kidney (eg, renal lymphoma)
Teratoma
Mesoblastic nephroma
Metanephric stromal tumor (MST)
Sarcomatoid dedifferentiation in renal cell carcinoma
Primary renal sarcomas (eg, leiomyosarcomas, fibrosarcomas, malignant fibrous histiocytomas)
Sarcomas and round cell tumors
Multilocular renal cysts (cystic nephroma)
Metanephric adenoma or metanephric (nephrogenic) adenofibroma
Ossifying renal tumor of infancy
Cystic hematoma of the renal pelvis

WORKUP

Section 5 of 12

Lab Studies:

• Since no specific laboratory study exists to confirm the diagnosis of clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK), most testing pertains to the workup of an abdominal mass.


• • Complete blood count: Complete blood counts should be performed to evaluate for evidence of anemia.
  
  
  
  • Creatinine levels: Serum creatinine levels are tested to assess the patient’s renal function.
  
  
  
  • Standard preoperative laboratory studies: Prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time should be checked in preparation for surgery, and urinalysis should be performed.
  
  
  

Imaging Studies:

• CT scans of the chest (before surgery) and abdomen should be performed initially to define the extent of the tumor.



• Abdominal ultrasound should be performed to evaluate the status of the inferior vena cava and any gross extension into the renal vein. Tumor thrombus in the renal vein is present in approximately 5% of patients with CCSK.



• Bone scan and brain CT scan or MRI also are part of the workup.

Histologically, CCSK shows 3 components, namely, (1) cord cells, which are small round-to-oval cells with deceptively bland cytologic features, including mitotic figures; (2) septal cells, which are spindle-shaped cells along the fibrovascular septa (fibrovascular septa can be demonstrated more convincingly using reticulum stain); and (3) an intercellular matrix composed of mucopolysaccharide, which ranges from minute indiscernible droplets to large pools imparting the clear appearance of CCSK.

Depending on the amount, distribution, and variation in morphology of the 3 components, the tumor shows a classic CCSK pattern or the variant histologic patterns. Variant histologic patterns also may be observed in the metastases. The classic pattern usually represents the predominant pattern in most CCSK tumors; the patterns blend smoothly with one or more of the following variant patterns:

• Myxoid pattern (50%)

• Sclerosing pattern (35%)

• Cellular pattern (26%)

• Epithelioid pattern (trabecular or acinar type) (13%)

• Palisading (Verocay body) pattern (11%)

• Spindle cell pattern (7%)

• Storiform pattern (4%)

• Anaplastic pattern (2.6%)

The anaplastic pattern is defined by nuclear hyperchromasia, nuclear gigantism, and atypical mitoses. Overexpression of p53 (>75% of the nuclei) has been demonstrated in 2 of 3 anaplastic CCSK lesions. The classic histologic pattern of CCSK is characterized by cord cells arranged in cords, nests, or groups surrounded by thin fibrovascular septa. A moderate amount of clear intercellular matrix separates the cord cells, giving a clear appearance, hence the designation CCSK. The term clear cells is doubly a misnomer because the clear cell appearance is caused by loose spacing of the round or oval cord cells with intervening intercellular clear mucoid matrix and because the clear appearance may be absent in many cases.

The diagnosis of CCSK should be considered, even if no real or apparent clear appearance exists in the tumor cells in an unusual renal tumor. The classic pattern described is observed at least focally in most patients. However, in a minority of cases, such as in resected tumors or in small biopsy specimens, the classic pattern is absent and only the variant pattern is seen. Therefore, it is essential that the practicing pathologist be familiar with the variant pattern.

Unfortunately, no diagnostically useful immunohistochemical features exist. Tumor cells usually test positive for vimentin and negative for cytokeratin, factor VIII–associated antigen, epithelial membrane antigen, desmin, S100, factor XIIIa, c-kit, polyclonal carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), and MAC387. Positive staining results for cytokeratin, a₁-antitrypsin, and a₁-antichymotrypsin have been described.

Electron microscopy reveals features of primitive mesenchymal cells with abundant pale extracellular matrix, containing scant collagen fibers, and occasional septa, containing myofibroblasts or pericytes. The main contribution of immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy is to exclude other diagnostic possibilities.

Staging: Staging for renal tumors is as follows:

• Stage I: The tumor is limited to the kidney and is completely resected. The renal capsule is intact, and no evidence of rupture exists. The vessels of the renal sinus are not involved, and no evidence of tumor at or beyond the margins of resection exists.

• Stage II: The tumor extends beyond the kidney but is completely resected. Regional extension of tumor has occurred. Blood vessels outside the renal parenchyma (including those of the renal sinus) may contain tumor. Biopsy is performed on tumors (except by fine needle aspiration), or spillage of the tumor occurs before or during surgery; spillage is confined to the flank and does not involve the peritoneal surface. No evidence exists of tumor at or beyond the margins of resection.

• Stage III: Residual tumor is nonhematogenous and is confined to the abdomen. Stage III criteria are (1) the presence of lymph nodes within the abdomen (renal hilar, para-aortic, or beyond) that demonstrate positive results for tumor, (2) the tumor penetrates the peritoneal surface, (3) the tumor implants on the peritoneal surface, (4) gross or microscopic evidence of the tumor is present after resection, (5) resection is incomplete because of involvement of vital structures, or (6) tumor spillage is not confined to the flank.

• Stage IV: Hematogenous metastases (eg, lung, liver, bone, brain) or lymph node metastases extend outside of the abdominopelvic region.

• Stage V: Bilateral renal involvement is discovered at diagnosis. Each side is staged individually using the above criteria.

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 12

Medical Care: The approach for treating clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) is different from the approach for Wilms tumor because the overall survival of children with CCSK remains considerably lower than that of patients with favorable-histology Wilms tumor. In the NWTS-3 study, the addition of doxorubicin to the combination of vincristine, dactinomycin, and radiation therapy resulted in an improvement in disease-free survival in patients with CCSK.

NWTS-4 showed that patients treated with vincristine, doxorubicin, and dactinomycin for 15 months had an improved relapse-free survival rate compared with patients treated for 6 months (87.5% vs 60.6% at 8 y). The overall survival has improved for patients with CCSK from NWTS-3 to NWTS-4 (83% vs 66.9% at 8 y). The 8-year relapse-free survival rate for localized CCSK stages I-III is 88%, but late relapses have been known to occur. In the NWTS-5 protocol, patients with all stages of CCSK are treated with the same regimen used in patients who have Wilms tumor with diffuse anaplasia (excluding stage I); this treatment consists of a radical nephrectomy followed by radiotherapy and chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, etoposide, vincristine, and doxorubicin for 24 weeks.

In the NWTSG series that was reviewed by Argani et al, a better prognosis was indicated in the subset of patients with CCSK that was characterized by stage I tumors in patients aged 2-4 years in whom no tumor necrosis was identified.

In the current Children’s Oncology Group protocol, all patients with CCSK, except patients with stage IV, continue treatment as in NWTS-5. However, patients with stage I who undergo lymph node sampling do not undergo radiation therapy to the tumor bed. Any patient with stage I who has not undergone lymph node sampling is upstaged to stage II. Patients with stage IV undergo treatment with irinotecan and vincristine in an upfront window approach before treatment with cyclophosphamide, etoposide, vincristine, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide.

Surgical Care: At presentation, radical nephrectomy is the initial treatment of choice if the lesion is resectable. If any question exists regarding the size or extension of the lesion, a biopsy is performed and chemotherapy is administered, followed by surgical resection after a response has been obtained.

Consultations:

• Radiotherapist: Once the tumor has been resected, the tumor bed and any other sites of disease are irradiated.



• Pediatric oncologist: Primary care physicians should consult with a pediatric oncologist to determine standard and investigational treatment protocols.

Diet: No special diet is required.

Activity: Patients with CCSK are advised not to participate in contact sports, especially football. Other activity recommendations are made on an individual basis.

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 12

Patients with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) are treated with combination chemotherapy. The addition of doxorubicin to chemotherapeutic regimens has been shown to improve disease-free survival rates. Physicians caring for a patient with CCSK should consult a pediatric oncologist affiliated with a cancer center that participates in national or international trials to determine the current standard treatment protocol and to determine whether the patient is eligible for an investigational protocol.

Drug Category: Antineoplastic agents -- Cancer chemotherapy is based on an understanding of tumor cell growth and how drugs affect this growth. After cells divide, they enter a period of growth (ie, gap 1 [G1]), followed by DNA synthesis (ie, S phase), a premitotic phase (ie, gap 2 [G2]), and, finally, mitotic cell division (ie, M phase).

The rate of cell division varies among tumors. Most lesions of common cancers increase very slowly in size compared to normal tissues, and the rate of growth may even be slower in large tumors. This difference allows normal cells to recover more quickly from chemotherapy than malignant cells, and provides the rationale behind current cyclic dosage schedules.

Antineoplastic agents interfere with cell reproduction. Some agents are cell cycle specific, while others (eg, alkylating agents, anthracyclines, cisplatin) are not phase specific. Cellular apoptosis (ie, programmed cell death) is also a potential mechanism in many antineoplastic agents.

Refer to the specific protocols for duration of therapy with each drug and timing of administration within each treatment cycle.

Drug Name	Vincristine (Oncovin) -- A vinca alkaloid that inhibits cellular mitosis by inhibiting intracellular tubulin function, binding to microtubules, and inhibiting the synthesis of spindle proteins.
Pediatric Dose	Weeks 1, 2, 4-8, 10, and 11: <30 kg: 0.05 mg/kg IV push >30 kg: 1.5 mg/m2; not to exceed 2 mg/dose Weeks 13, 18, and 24: <30 kg: 0.067 mg/kg IV push >30 kg: 2 mg/m2; not to exceed 2 mg/dose
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; IT administration may cause death
Interactions	Acute pulmonary reaction may occur when taken concurrently with mitomycin-C; asparaginase, CYP450 3A4 inhibitors (eg, itraconazole, quinupristin/dalfopristin, sertraline, ritonavir), CSF (eg, sargramostim, filgrastim), or nifedipine increase toxicity; CYP450 3A4 inducers (eg, carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, rifampin) may decrease effects
Pregnancy	D - Unsafe in pregnancy
Precautions	Caution in severe cardiopulmonary disease, hepatic impairment (adjust dose), or preexisting neuromuscular dysfunction; may increase conjugated bilirubin

Drug Name	Doxorubicin (Adriamycin, Rubex) -- Inhibits topoisomerase II and produces free radicals, which may cause the destruction of DNA. The combination of these 2 events can, in turn, inhibit the growth of neoplastic cells.
Pediatric Dose	Day 0, weeks 6, 12, 18, and 24: <30 kg: 1.5 mg/kg IV >30 kg: 45 mg/m2 Note: Dose at week 6 should be decreased by 50% if whole lung or whole abdomen radiotherapy is administered
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; severe heart failure, cardiomyopathy, and impaired cardiac function; preexisting myelosuppression
Interactions	May decrease phenytoin and digoxin plasma levels; phenobarbital may decrease plasma levels of doxorubicin; cyclosporine may induce coma or seizures; mercaptopurine increases toxicity of doxorubicin; cyclophosphamide increases cardiac toxicity of doxorubicin
Pregnancy	D - Unsafe in pregnancy
Precautions	Irreversible cardiac toxicity and myelosuppression may occur; extravasation may result in severe local tissue necrosis; reduce dose in patients with impaired hepatic function

Drug Name	Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan, Neosar) -- Chemically related to nitrogen mustards. As an alkylating agent, the mechanism of action of the active metabolites may involve cross-linking of DNA, which may interfere with growth of normal and neoplastic cells.
Pediatric Dose	Weeks 3, 9, 15, and 21: <30 kg: 14.7 mg/kg/d IV for 5 d >30 kg: 440 mg/m2/d IV for 5 d Weeks 6, 12, 18, and 24: Administer according to weight as above for 3 d
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; severely depressed bone marrow function
Interactions	Allopurinol may increase risk of bleeding or infection and enhance myelosuppressive effects; may potentiate doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity; may reduce digoxin serum levels and antimicrobial effects of quinolones; toxicity may increase with chloramphenicol; may increase effect of anticoagulants; coadministration with high doses of phenobarbital may increase leukopenic activity; thiazide diuretics may prolong cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia; coadministration with succinylcholine may increase neuromuscular blockade by inhibiting cholinesterase activity
Pregnancy	D - Unsafe in pregnancy
Precautions	Regularly examine hematologic profiles (particularly neutrophils and platelets) to monitor for hematopoietic suppression; regularly examine urine for RBCs, which may precede hemorrhagic cystitis

Drug Name	Etoposide (Toposar, VePesid, VP-16) -- Inhibits topoisomerase II and causes DNA strand breakage causing cell proliferation to arrest in late S or early G2 portion of the cell cycle.
Pediatric Dose	Weeks 3, 9, 15, and 21: <30 kg: 3.3 mg/kg/d IV for 5 d >30 kg: 100 mg/m2/d IV for 5 d
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity
Interactions	May prolong effects of warfarin and increase clearance of methotrexate; cyclosporine and etoposide have additive effects in cytotoxicity of tumor cells
Pregnancy	D - Unsafe in pregnancy
Precautions	Bleeding and severe myelosuppression may occur

Drug Category: Uroprotective antidote -- Mesna is a prophylactic detoxifying agent used to inhibit hemorrhagic cystitis caused by ifosfamide and cyclophosphamide.

In the kidney, mesna disulfide is reduced to free mesna. Free mesna has thiol groups that react with acrolein, the ifosfamide or cyclophosphamide metabolite considered responsible for urotoxicity.

Drug Name	Mesna (Mesnex) -- Inactivates acrolein and prevents urothelial toxicity without affecting cytostatic activity. Dose is dependent on dose of ifosfamide or cyclophosphamide, typically 60-100% of the antineoplastic agent used. May be administered as an initial bolus followed by IV continuous infusion or as intermittent IV infusions before and following chemotherapy regimen.
Pediatric Dose	Begin administration following cyclophosphamide Weeks 3, 9, 15, and 21: <30 kg: 3 mg/kg/dose IV over 15 min q3h for 4 doses/d for 5 d >30 kg: 90 mg/m2/dose IV over 15 min q3h for 4 doses/d for 5 d Weeks 6, 12, 18, and 24: Administer according to weight as above for 3 d
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity
Interactions	May increase warfarin effects, adjust dose according to INR target
Pregnancy	B - Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks.
Precautions	Monitor morning urine for hematuria before ifosfamide or cyclophosphamide dose; common adverse effects include hypotension, headache, GI tract toxicity, and limb pain

Drug Category: Colony-stimulating growth factors -- These act as a hematopoietic growth factor that stimulates the development of granulocytes. They are used to treat or prevent neutropenia in patients receiving myelosuppressive cancer chemotherapy and to reduce the period of neutropenia associated with bone marrow transplantation. They are also used to mobilize autologous peripheral blood progenitor cells for bone marrow transplantation and to manage chronic neutropenia.

Drug Name	Filgrastim (Neupogen, G-CSF) -- Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor that activates and stimulates production, maturation, migration, and cytotoxicity of neutrophils.
Pediatric Dose	5 mcg/kg/d SC beginning 24 h after the last dose of chemotherapy, administered until ANC >10,000/ mm3 and beyond nadir for myelosuppression or minimum of 1 wk
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity
Interactions	Do not use 12-24 h before or 24 h after administering cytotoxic chemotherapy because increases sensitivity of rapidly dividing myeloid cells to cytotoxic chemotherapy
Pregnancy	C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.
Precautions	Risk of developing myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myeloid leukemia in certain patients; leukocytosis; possible tumor growth

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 12

Further Inpatient Care:

• Pediatricians often refer patients with an abdominal mass to a pediatric general surgeon or urologist (if a known renal mass is present). These specialists should involve pediatric oncologists preoperatively. Chest CT scans should be obtained before surgery to eliminate confusion regarding areas of atelectasis that may be difficult to separate from metastases. In addition, if abnormal findings are revealed on chest CT scans, a biopsy of lung tissue can be planned at the time of surgery.



• Chemotherapy may be administered on an outpatient (depending on the facilities) or inpatient basis.



• Fever and neutropenia may occur, requiring hospitalization for IV antibiotics and monitoring.

Further Outpatient Care:

• Monitoring for recurrence


• • After completing chemotherapy, patients should continue to have regular blood work and radiographic scans on an outpatient basis, which decreases in frequency over time. Generally, these visits occur every 1-3 months for the first year, every 3-6 months for the second and third years, then yearly thereafter. Investigators in Europe and in North America have reported an increase in number of CNS recurrences of clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK). The brain should be routinely scanned with other areas.
  
  
  
  • As noted previously, CCSK tumors are associated with late recurrence; thus, in some settings, patients with CCSK need to be monitored even more closely. The most common site of recurrence is bone. Unlike Wilms tumor, patients remain at risk for recurrence after 2 years posttherapy. Tumors may recur up to 10 years after completion of treatment. Patients require follow-up evaluation in a late-effects clinic and monitoring with appropriate tests because they have a single kidney. Patients are assessed for toxic effects resulting from chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or both. Follow-up visits should include renal, psychosocial, cardiac, and hormonal evaluations.
  
  
  

In/Out Patient Meds:

• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is indicated in patients who have undergone irradiation therapy to the lung. This should continue throughout the course of treatment and for 6 months posttherapy.

Transfer:

• Pediatrician or general practitioner: Although the major therapy for cancer should occur at a center staffed by pediatric oncologists, referring physicians should continue to play an important role in the child’s care throughout treatment. The referring physician can be critical in performing the first evaluation of an illness, particularly if the child lives far from the oncology center.



• Patients may be referred to pediatric general surgeons and urologists.

Deterrence/Prevention:

• No preventive measures for childhood cancers currently are known.

Complications:

• Cardiomyopathy results primarily from anthracycline (doxorubicin) use. Patients should obtain routine follow-up echocardiograms after the completion of therapy.



• Patients are at risk for renal failure because they have a single kidney.



• Radiation effects have decreased but, in the past, have consisted of asymmetry of the muscle mass in the back.



• Secondary malignant neoplasms may arise as a result of chemotherapy (particularly alkylating agents in combination with radiotherapy).



• Infertility may occur as a result of the alkylating agents.

Prognosis:

• Patients who have stage I tumors, are aged 2-4 years, and have no tumor necrosis tend to have a better prognosis.



• Patients who present with distant metastases or multifocal disease have a poor prognosis, with a 50% long-term 6-year survival rate.



• Treatment with doxorubicin has resulted in a 66% reduction in the tumor-related mortality rate.

Patient Education:

• Parents and patients must undergo formal chemotherapy instruction to learn about the adverse effects of medication. They must be encouraged to call with any questions and to become educated regarding the expectations of chemotherapy.



• Parents must be taught regarding flushing schedules and how to maintain and care for the central venous catheter if it exits the skin and the procedure to follow if the patient develops a fever.



• Patients who have undergone abdominal surgery are at risk for developing intestinal obstructions or scar tissue related to the surgery. Families must be educated to call when abdominal pain or vomiting develop that are not related to an infectious cause. All members of the pediatric oncology team also must have a heightened awareness of the risk of obstruction in these patients so that an abdominal radiograph is obtained if any suggestion of obstruction exists.



• For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine’s Cancer and Tumors Center. Also, see eMedicine’s patient education article Renal Cell Cancer.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 12

Medical/Legal Pitfalls:

• Failure to accurately stage the disease in the patient, particularly using preoperative ultrasound of the inferior vena cava



• Failure to make the correct diagnosis of clear cell sarcoma of the kidney using pathologic analysis of biopsy or resected tumor specimens



• Failure to monitor patients appropriately and closely for toxicities of treatment



• Failure to identify a bowel obstruction and to treat it in a timely and appropriate manner

TEST QUESTIONS

Section 10 of 12

CME Question 1: Which of the following tumors can be confused with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) histologically?

A: Blastomal predominant Wilms tumor
B: Rhabdoid tumor of the kidney
C: Peripheral neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) of the kidneys
D: Mesoblastic nephroma
E: All of the above

The correct answer is E: Recognition of CCSK by pathologists has evolved; however, initially, CCSK was confused with all the tumors noted above. Not until 1970 was CCSK initially recognized as a distinct clinicopathologic entity, with a propensity to metastasize to bone. The distinctive histopathologic features of CCSK were reported in 1978. These reports confirmed the propensity of the CCSK tumor to metastasize to bone, the poor clinical outcome in patients, and the sarcomatous nonepithelial nature of the tumor.

CME Question 2: Which of the following diagnostic techniques is not essential for accurate tumor staging in a patient in whom clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) is diagnosed?

A: CT scans of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis
B: Bone marrow biopsy
C: Bone scan
D: MRI of the brain
E: None of the above

The correct answer is B: CCSK is known to metastasize to bone and brain; thus, imaging studies need to be performed in these areas for accurate staging. Bone marrow involvement, particularly at diagnosis, is extremely rare.

Pearl Question 1 (T/F): Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) is the most frequently misdiagnosed renal tumor in children.

The correct answer is True: CCSK has a deceptively bland histologic appearance and many histologic subtypes. The diagnosis may be difficult if the pathologist is not experienced in evaluating pediatric renal tumors.

Pearl Question 2 (T/F): Patients with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) are considered to be cured if no evidence of tumor exists after 2 years of completing therapy.

The correct answer is False: CCSK is known for late recurrences, which have been reported up to 10 years after completion of treatment.

Pearl Question 3 (T/F): Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK), unlike Wilms tumor, is not associated with any genetic syndromes.

The correct answer is True: To date, no associated syndromes have been linked to CCSK, unlike Wilms tumor, which is associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, Denys-Drash syndrome, and others.

Pearl Question 4 (T/F): Doxorubicin, when added to vincristine and actinomycin, has not been shown to improve the relapse-free survival rate in patients with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK).

The correct answer is False: The first 3 National Wilms Tumor Study Group (NWTSG) trials demonstrated an improvement in relapse-free and overall survival rates with the addition of doxorubicin to treatment regimens in patients with CCSK.

PICTURES

Section 11 of 12

Caption: Picture 1. Large right-sided heterogeneous renal mass in a 9-month-old infant. Biopsy findings were consistent with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney.
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Caption: Picture 2. Recurrent clear cell sarcoma of the kidney occurring in a lymph node 18 months after therapy.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Section 12 of 12

• Amin MB, de Peralta-Venturina MN, Ro JY, et al: Clear cell sarcoma of kidney in an adolescent and in young adults: a report of four cases with ultrastructural, immunohistochemical, and DNA flow cytometric analysis. Am J Surg Pathol 1999 Dec; 23(12): 1455-63[Medline].
• Argani P, Perlman EJ, Breslow NE, et al: Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney: a review of 351 cases from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group Pathology Center. Am J Surg Pathol 2000 Jan; 24(1): 4-18[Medline].
• Balarezo FS, Joshi VV: Clear cell sarcoma of the pediatric kidney: detailed description and analysis of variant histologic patterns of a tumor with many faces. Adv Anat Pathol 2001 Mar; 8(2): 98-108[Medline].
• Beckwith JB, Palmer NF: Histopathology and prognosis of Wilms tumors: results from the First National Wilms' Tumor Study. Cancer 1978 May; 41(5): 1937-48[Medline].
• Charles AK, Vujanic GM, Berry PJ: Renal tumours of childhood. Histopathology 1998 Apr; 32(4): 293-309[Medline].
• Cutcliffe C, Kersey D, Huang CC, et al: Clear cell sarcoma of kidney: up-regulation of neural markers with activation of the sonic hedgehog and Akt pathways. Clin Can Res 2005; 11: 7986-7994[Medline][Full Text].
• Green DM, Breslow NE, Beckwith JB, et al: Treatment of children with clear-cell sarcoma of the kidney: a report from the National Wilms' Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol 1994 Oct; 12(10): 2132-7[Medline].
• Marsden HB, Lawler W, Kumar PM: Bone metastasizing renal tumor of childhood: morphological and clinical features, and differences from Wilms' tumor. Cancer 1978 Oct; 42(4): 1922-8[Medline].
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